Throughout American history, the categorization of racial identities has often served as a tool for systemic control rather than an accurate representation of cultural heritage. Among the most overlooked cases of ethnic erasure is the misclassification of American Indians as Black, a phenomenon with profound historical and cultural implications.
The racial misclassification of American Indians has roots in colonial policies and legal systems designed to erase Indigenous identity. In the early days of colonization, laws like the “one-drop rule” in the United States rigidly categorized individuals based on perceived African ancestry, relegating many American Indians with mixed heritage to the Black racial category including some American Indians without mixed parentage. This not only ignored their Indigenous lineage but also subjected them to the systemic racism faced by African Americans. Each person has the right to self define who they are in the context of social existence it could be deemed normal to relate to Blackness socially however legally the term Black is a misnomer and was used as a legal weapon to detribalized American Indians thus erasing a heritage, history and birthright of the Indigenous population. Some scholars argue that this misclassification was a deliberate strategy to undermine tribal sovereignty and erase Indigenous land claims. By classifying American Indians as Black, colonial authorities could obscure their unique cultural identities and nullify treaties that recognized them as distinct nations. Census records and other government documents have historically played a significant role in this misclassification. In the 18th and 19th centuries, enumerators often lacked the training—or the willingness—to distinguish between racial categories accurately. As a result, individuals who self-identified as American Indian were frequently recorded as Black, especially if they exhibited physical characteristics stereotypically associated with African ancestry.
For example, the Dawes Rolls, a critical tool in determining tribal membership, often excluded American Indians who had been classified as Black, effectively denying them their legal rights and cultural heritage.1
Publication Date: 1870 The misclassification of American Indians as Black has led to the loss of language, traditions, and community connections. Many individuals and families who were classified as Black faced systemic barriers to reconnecting with their tribes. This erasure has had intergenerational consequences, as descendants often lack the documentation needed to claim their Indigenous heritage.
In recent decades, there has been a growing movement to address this historical wrong. Advocacy groups and researchers are working to uncover records, challenge misclassifications, and restore the rightful identity of individuals and communities. DNA testing and genealogy research have also become tools for reclaiming lost heritage, although they come with their own set of ethical and scientific limitations.
The ethnic erasure of American Indians misclassified as Black highlights the destructive power of racial categorization systems and the enduring impact of colonial policies. By acknowledging and addressing this aspect of history, we can take a step toward justice for those whose identities have been marginalized and erased.
1. Perdue, Theda. Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003.
https://www.census.gov/data-tools/demo/race/MREAD_1790_2010.html The Census and Its Role in Ethnic Misclassification The United States Census has been a critical tool for shaping racial and ethnic identities, often to the detriment of marginalized groups. Its role in misclassifying American Indians as Black is emblematic of how systemic structures perpetuated ethnic erasure.
Early Census Practices
From its inception in 1790, the U.S. Census categorized people into rigid racial groups that reflected the social and political priorities of the time rather than the complexities of identity. Early censuses primarily identified individuals as "White," "Black," or "Indian." However, these categories were not applied consistently, and census takers often relied on their subjective judgments to assign racial classifications.
For individuals of mixed heritage, this system proved particularly problematic. American Indians who had African ancestry—or who were perceived to have African ancestry based on physical appearance—were frequently recorded as Black rather than Indian.1 This practice reinforced a racial binary that erased the unique identities of mixed-race individuals and collapsed their diverse heritages into oversimplified categories.
The Dawes Rolls and Tribal Enrollment
The Dawes Act of 1887, which aimed to assimilate American Indians into Euro-American society, introduced the Dawes Rolls as a means of recording tribal membership. While the rolls were intended to enumerate and regulate American Indians, they excluded individuals classified as Black, even if they had verifiable tribal affiliations. Many "Freedmen"—Black individuals who had lived among or intermarried with American Indians—were systematically excluded from tribal membership lists, erasing their connection to Indigenous communities and cultural heritage.2
In addition, the census often conflated racial and social categories. For example, census enumerators might classify individuals as Black based on community perceptions or socioeconomic status, further distorting the historical record.3
Racial Reclassification in the 20th Century
The mid-20th century saw continued efforts to assimilate American Indians and dissolve tribal identities. Census policies, such as the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, shifted the focus from blood quantum to community recognition. However, this shift did little to address the longstanding misclassifications. Instead, it perpetuated confusion and allowed the government to further manipulate racial data to reduce the number of recognized American Indians, undermining tribal sovereignty and federal obligations.4 Footnotes
Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.
Sturm, Circe. Blood Politics: Race, Culture, and Identity in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
Nobles, Melissa. Shades of Citizenship: Race and the Census in Modern Politics. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000.
Deloria, Vine Jr. Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969.
FIRST TRIBE
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